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Caste and Its Influence on Indian Politics and Voting Patterns

Caste and Its Influence on Indian Politics and Voting Patterns

A Research Paper by Devina Prashanth

Statement of Purpose: I picked this topic because my interest was piqued after the 2024 Lok Sabha Elections. The BJP failed to get a clear majority and upon delving into independent research about that, I saw some analyses related to caste. This led me to wonder how long caste has remained entrenched in our elections and voting patterns, and whether it still has an effect. Is there any alternate criteria for choosing a representative? Upon asking the Internet this question, I stumbled on the term ‘issue-based voting’. Hence, I chose to study the effect of caste in the past briefly, followed by a basic analysis of this year’s elections and lastly, the relevance of issue-based voting in India.

Hypothesis: Historically, caste has shaped political preferences and engagement across India, influencing voting behaviour in both rural and urban areas. However, as India experiences rapid social and economic shifts, issue-based voting focused on development, healthcare, and education appears to be gaining traction. This study aims to examine whether caste continues to dominate Indian politics across regions or if a shift towards issue-based voting is emerging, signaling a potential transformation in the country’s democratic landscape.

Methodology: I have employed both primary and secondary sources for this project. The primary source provided direct insight into contemporary voting behaviour and in understanding others’ view of the role caste plays in India and was also able to ascertain how many people knew what issue-based voting was. Secondary sources allowed me to establish historical and regional patterns in voting preferences. It also provided data about elections.

Primary Research:

For the first question, "Caste is very relevant to politics in India," the majority of respondents either highly agreed or agreed, showing a strong belief that caste remains a significant factor in the political landscape of India. This aligns with the historical view that caste has deeply influenced voting behaviour and political affiliations in India, particularly in rural areas where caste-based identity often plays a central role in determining electoral outcomes. The two respondents who disagreed and the one who remained neutral could suggest a more urbanized or younger demographic that might be more open to or influenced by issue-based voting, signaling that the relevance of caste might be viewed differently by those who experience less caste-based social division.

The same conclusion as from Q1 can be drawn from the responses of the second question. It reflects a broad consensus that caste continues to shape politics and voting patterns in India.

17 out of 20 respondents agreed with the third statement "Political parties appeal to castes (upper or lower) to gather a voter bank,” indicating a strong perception that caste-based strategies are a deliberate tool used by political parties in India. This aligns with long-standing practices where parties mobilise specific caste groups to secure electoral advantages, often through targeted campaigns or promises of representation and benefits. The three neutral responses could suggest that some individuals either lack direct exposure to such strategies or are beginning to view political engagement through lenses other than caste.

The divided answers to the fourth statement suggests a lack of strong consensus about the rise of issue-based voting. Many respondents may not have observed or experienced a significant shift away from caste-based or identity-driven voting patterns. The high number of neutral responses could reflect uncertainty or limited exposure to issue-based campaigns, especially in regions where traditional voting patterns prevail. Analysing the responses for this statement, it can be concluded that while discussions around issue-based voting are gaining attention, its impact may still be limited or not widely recognized yet.

A similar conclusion as the fourth statement can be drawn for the fifth. While the responses do indicate a growing recognition of issue-based and development-oriented politics it also highlights the persistence of traditional voting influences like caste in many areas. The mixed views suggest that while development is emerging as a factor, its impact may still be region-specific or dependent on particular voter demographics.

Secondary Research:

Introduction -

India’s democratic landscape has been deeply shaped by its complex social fabric, with caste playing a pivotal role in shaping political preferences, alliances, and voter behaviour since independence. For decades, caste affiliations have influenced electoral outcomes, significantly influencing how individuals align politically, particularly in rural regions where community ties remain strong. However, as India experiences rapid social and economic transformations, new trends in voter behaviour are beginning to emerge, with issue-based voting on the rise.

Factors such as urbanization, increased access to education, and the influence of digital media are contributing to a shift in political priorities, particularly among younger generations and urban voters. As a result, issues like development, healthcare, and education are gaining ground as central election concerns, signaling a potential shift away from traditional caste-based voting patterns.

This study seeks to examine whether caste continues to dominate Indian politics across regions or if the growing emphasis on issue-based voting represents a transformation in the nation’s democratic practices. By exploring regional trends, recent voter data, and the role of socio-economic changes, this project aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the evolving dynamics within India’s political landscape and assess whether this shift points towards a more inclusive and issue-centered democracy.

The Historical Influence of Caste on Politics -

The caste system has long shaped India’s social and political landscape, with caste identities influencing alliances, party strategies, and voter behaviour. During the independence movement, leaders like Gandhi and Ambedkar highlighted caste as a crucial issue. Ambedkar, who helped draft India’s Constitution, championed rights and affirmative action for lower castes, setting the stage for caste-based policies.

After independence, political parties began mobilizing voters along caste lines. In states like Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar, regional parties found success by appealing to specific caste groups. National parties like Congress and BJP adapted by forming coalitions or appealing to dominant castes in certain states. Caste-based vote banks became central to electoral strategies, with politicians promising benefits to particular groups, reinforcing caste identities in politics.

A Small Case-Study of Bihar: A caste-based survey carried out by the Bihar government in the state in October of 2023 revealed that Other Backward Classes (OBCs) comprise 63% of the state’s population.

Throughout history, the state’s various Chief Ministers have struggled to maintain equality between the upper and lower caste people. In the four years after 1967, Bihar had five CMs from OBCs and two CMs from SCs. The Naxalite movement also gained traction in Bihar for a while from about 1972-1976. A constant power struggle between the Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Dal in Bihar saw Karpoori Thakur’s government being brought down, who championed the rights of lower castes and even implemented 25% reservation for OBCs in government services, and replaced with Ram Sunder Das, who appointed more than 50% upper caste ministers for his cabinet.

Through the 80s, the Congress continued to install upper caste CMs. However, this decade also witnessed a significant rise in political violence. Caste armies like Lorik Sena (landowners), Lal Sena (landless labourers), and the ‘Naxalite parallel government’.

The Mandal Commission of 1979 was tasked with identifying socially and educationally backward classes in India and recommending measures for their upliftment. Its landmark recommendation in 1980 was to reserve 27% of government jobs and seats in educational institutions for (OBCs). As a prominent leader representing OBCs, Lalu Prasad Yadav became a staunch supporter of the Mandal Commission’s implementation. In Bihar, he positioned himself as a defender of social justice, using the Mandal movement to mobilize backward classes and consolidate his political base. He became an extremely popular leader amongst the depressed castes who saw him as their chance at equality. He also helped to cement the Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) as a party that fought for OBCs and Dalits.

Clearly, Bihar has always been defined by its large lower-caste voter bank and even in current times, Nitish Kumar, the current Chief Minister of Bihar, belongs to the OBC showing the voting patterns of the people of Bihar.

A Small-Case Study of Tamil Nadu: Although portrayed as a state far ahead in social reforms, some political parties of Tamil Nadu are unable to shed their caste image. An appropriate example would be The Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK), ‘pattali’ means ‘toiler’ but has nothing to do with working class politics. They draw their support from the Vanniyars, a middle-caste agricultural group which accounts for about 12% of the state’s population (2019), they are also backed by an active caste organisation known as the Vanniyar Sangam. The PMK has been a significant player in advocating for the rights of Vanniyars who are concentrated in the northern district of Tamil Nadu.

Tamil Nadu is no stranger to caste violence. The silence of major Dravidian parties like The All-India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) reveal their allegiance to the dominant caste. Dalits have almost always been at the receiving end of atrocities by the upper caste. Untouchability, presence of caste walls, and fences still exist in remote villages in the state showing how much discrimination the Dalits face to this day.

Despite the AIADMK and DMK’s silence on many prevalent issues, they enjoy support from both upper and lower castes. The DMK has managed to garner the support of depressed castes like the Dalits, Muslims, Vellalars, and Yadavas. Thus, most parties in Tamil Nadu appeal to the repressed castes to gather a voter bank. Dominating parties in the rest of the country like BJP and Congress are yet to make inroads in Tamil Nadu.

A Small Case-Study of Uttar Pradesh: OBCs in Uttar Pradesh make up about 40-45% of the population, SCs and STs make up 21.7% of the population combined, Muslims make up 19.5%, and upper-castes make up 19% of the population.

Post-independence, Congress dominated Uttar Pradesh. They relied on the Brahim-Dalit-Muslim alliance. However, the implementation of the Mandal Commission by V.P Singh’s government saw the rise of caste-based local parties. Parties like the Samajwadi Party (SP) consolidated the OBC vote, particularly the dominant Yadav caste. The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) emerged as a political party representing the interests of the Dalits, the most marginalised caste in the hierarchy. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) was able to win the votes of the Brahmin caste through the Ayodhya movement of the 1990s and continue to dominate in the region by forming coalitions with other parties. Muslims continue to support Congress.

The Current State of Caste-Based Voting -

The BJP-led NDA alliance won the 2024 Lok Sabha Elections, with Prime Minister Narendra Modi coming back for a historic third term. Before we analyse how caste dynamics played a role in this year’s General Elections, let’s briefly dive into the current state of Dalits, SCs and STs.

Studies show that Dalits and other OBCs are inadequately represented in higher education and formal employment sectors. Unemployment rates for SCs and STs are higher than any other caste group, which shows the ongoing disparities in economic opportunities. To this day, Dalits are subject to extreme forms of violence, including lynchings, rapes, and murders. They also face social and economic boycotts. Caste-based violence is a major issue in political India as upper castes mostly drive them to maintain the traditional hierarchies.

On August 15th, 2024, a teenage Dalit girl was gang-raped and murdered by upper-caste men. Despite the gravity of the crime, it elicited limited political and governmental responses, showcasing the enduring silence around such atrocities. The incident has reignited debates on the intersection of caste and gender-based violence, with activists emphasising the need for accountability and systemic change to protect marginalised communities.

India’s affirmative action policies, known as ‘reservations’, were introduced to provide opportunities for Dalits, SCs and STs in education, government jobs, and political representation. However, it has been met with criticism that these policies have failed to address the deeper social and economic inequalities that result in discrimination.

The 2024 General Elections marked a significant shift in election dynamics. The BJP-led National Democratic Alliance emerged as the ruling coalition. However, it faced challenges. The BJP itself secured 240 seats compared to 303 seats in 2019 elections, losing its outright majority for the first time since 2014. In spite of this, NDA secured 293 seats. The Indian National Congress (INC) secured 99 seats, officially earning the title of the opposition party. The Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (INDIA) coalition, led by INC was able to win 234 seats.

A major loss for the BJP was the Faizabad Lok Sabha constituency, home of the newly built Ram Mandir. The Thakur candidate from the BJP, Lallu Singh, lost to the Dalit Candidate of the Samajwadi Party (SP), Awadhesh Prasad in this non-reserved seat. This was one of the rare instances of a Dalit candidate winning from an unreserved Lok Sabha seat and reflects how Dalits voted in the 2024 elections.

A study conducted by Azim Premji University and Centre for Study of Developing Societies concluded that a majority of Indians prefer voting for political leaders from their own caste, religion, or tribe. Dalits did not vote similarly in all states. Data shows that wherever Dalit voters supported either NDA or INDIA, that party won majority in that state. While Bihar and Uttar Pradesh share a similar nature of political contest, INDIA performed better in Uttar Pradesh than they did in Bihar. In Rajasthan, 46% of the Dalits voted for the Congress, while only 37% voted for the BJP candidates. In this State, the BJP had won all 25 seats in both the 2014 and 2019 Lok Sabha elections; it lost 10 Lok Sabha seats in 2024.

If we look at the SC's voting pattern, it resembles that of the Dalits. In the northern and western states of India, the BJP was able to garner the support of the SC community but lost out on southern states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala, which leaned towards the INC and the regional party, DMK.

The BJP was able to maintain dominance in tribal areas across central and northeastern India, including Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh.

What is Issue-Based Voting? -

Before studying whether issue-based voting is on the rise in India, it is important to understand what it is.

Issue-based voting refers to the practice when voters prioritise policy issues like economic development, education, healthcare, employment, etc., over traditional factors like caste, religion, tribe, etc. This form of voting is more rational and performance-oriented.

Is Issue-Based Voting On the Rise in India? -

After being influenced by identity factors from time immemorial, India’s elections are witnessing a change in voting patterns. Albeit small, nonetheless, present. Voters have begun evaluating candidates based on their policies, governance, and developmental impact. The evidence of this change is seen in the development and welfare schemes being introduced and implemented successfully. Welfare programs like PM Awas Yojana for housing, and Ujjwala Yojana for LPG distribution have been able to shape voting in rural and urban areas.

In urban areas, the middle-class population looks at issues like job creation, inflation control, and improved public services to determine the candidate they think is best suited. They are less swayed by religion or caste. With nearly 45% of India’s population under 25, the youth is emerging as a critical voter base who tend to focus more on developmental programs than traditional identity factors.

Issue-based voting is on the rise, mainly in regions of the country where the literacy rate is high, like Delhi, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. States like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar still see voting based on caste or religion. So, although issue-based voting is on the rise, its growth is uneven and unbalanced, with urban and semi-urban areas shifting away from traditional voting patterns while regions with caste and religious loyalties are not witnessing a major change.

Analysis of the Study -

The data collected supports the hypothesis that while caste remains a dominant factor in Indian politics, there is evidence of a gradual shift towards issue-based voting, though it is not yet widespread.

Responses to the first three questions in the primary research overwhelmingly show that caste continues to influence voting patterns and political strategies, with most respondents agreeing that it remains highly relevant. However, the responses to the fourth and fifth questions reveal a mixed perception about the rise of issue-based voting, with fewer respondents agreeing and a significant number remaining neutral or disagreeing.

While some regions or demographics may be experiencing a transition toward prioritising issues like development over caste, this trend is not yet uniform across the electorate.

Overall, the data highlights the coexistence of traditional caste dynamics with emerging issue-based considerations in India's evolving political landscape.

Conclusion -

Caste continues to significantly influence Indian politics, shaping party strategies and voter alignments across the country. However, ongoing social and economic changes are fostering a gradual shift towards issue-based voting, especially among younger and urban voters. Factors such as economic development, education, healthcare, and welfare schemes are increasingly playing a role in shaping voter preferences.

The 2024 general elections reflected this nuanced dynamic, where traditional caste-based loyalties persisted but were intersected by concerns over governance and development. This evolving trend signifies the beginning of a transformation in India's democratic landscape, highlighting the coexistence of deeply entrenched caste politics with emerging issue-based aspirations.

Balancing these two forces will be crucial for the future of Indian democracy, as the nation seeks to address historical inequalities while focusing on collective progress.

Sources -

Glossary -

Issue-based Voting: Issue-based voting is a voting method where voters cast their ballots based on the candidates' stances on specific issues rather than their party affiliation or personal charisma. In this approach, voters prioritize the policies and platforms of the candidates, evaluating their proposed solutions to problems like healthcare, education, economy, environment, and social justice.
OBCs: Other Backward Classes
SCs: Scheduled Castes
STs: Scheduled Tribes

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Caste and Its Influence on Indian Politics and Voting Patterns

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